Henri Becquerel and the Discovery of Radioactivity

Henri Becquerel and the Discovery of Radioactivity Antoine Henri Becquerel (born December 15, 1852 in Paris, France), known as Henri Becquerel, was a French physicist who discovered radioactivity, a process in which an atomic nucleus emits particles because it is unstable. He won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre and Marie Curie, the latter of whom was Becquerel’s graduate student. The SI unit for radioactivity called the becquerel (or Bq), which measures the amount of ionizing radiation that is released when an atom experiences radioactive decay, is also named after Becquerel. Early Life and Career Becquerel was born December 15, 1852, in Paris, France, to Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel and Aurelie Quenard. At an early age, Becquerel attended the preparatory school Lycà ©e Louis-le-Grand, located in Paris. In 1872, Becquerel began attending the École Polytechnique and in 1874 the École des Ponts et Chaussà ©es (Bridges and Highways School), where he studied civil engineering. In 1877, Becquerel became an engineer for the government in the Department of Bridges and Highways, where he was promoted to engineer-in-chief in 1894.  At the same time, Becquerel continued his education and held a number of academic positions. In 1876, he became an assistant teacher at the École Polytechnique, later becoming the school’s chair of physics in 1895. In 1878, Becquerel became an assistant naturalist at the Musà ©um d’Histoire Naturelle, and later became the professor of applied physics at the Musà ©um in 1892, after his father’s death. Becquerel was the third in his family to succeed this position. Becquerel received his doctorate from the Facultà © des Sciences de Paris with a thesis on plane-polarized light- the effect utilized in Polaroid sunglasses, in which light of only one direction is made to pass through a material- and the absorption of light by crystals. Discovering Radiation Becquerel was interested in phosphorescence; the effect utilized in glow-in-the-dark stars, in which light is emitted from a material when exposed to electromagnetic radiation, which persists as a glow even after the radiation is removed. Following Wilhelm Rà ¶ntgen’s discovery of X-rays in 1895, Becquerel wanted to see whether there was a connection between this invisible radiation and phosphorescence. Becquerel’s father had also been a physicist and from his work, Becquerel knew that uranium generates phosphorescence. On February 24, 1896, Becquerel presented work at a conference showing that a uranium-based crystal could emit radiation after being exposed to sunlight. He had placed the crystals on a photographic plate that had been wrapped in thick black paper so that only radiation that could penetrate through the paper would be visible on the plate. After developing the plate, Becquerel saw a shadow of the crystal, indicating that he had generated radiation like X-rays, which could penetrate through the human body. This experiment formed the basis of Henri Becquerel’s discovery of spontaneous radiation, which occurred by accident. Becquerel had planned to confirm his previous results with similar experiments exposing his samples to sunlight. However, that week in February, the sky above Paris was cloudy, and Becquerel stopped his experiment early, leaving his samples in a drawer as he waited for a sunny day. Becquerel did not have time before his next conference on March 2 and decided to develop the photographic plates anyway, even though his samples had received little sunlight. To his surprise, he found that he still saw the image of the uranium-based crystal on the plate. He presented these results on March 2 and continued to present results on his findings. He tested other fluorescent materials, but they did not produce similar results, indicating that this radiation was particular to uranium. He assumed that this radiation was different from X-rays and termed it â€Å"Becquerel radiation.† Becquerel’s findings would lead to Marie and Pierre Curie’s discovery of other substances like polonium and radium, which emitted similar radiation, albeit even more strongly than uranium. The couple coined the term â€Å"radioactivity† to describe the phenomenon. Becquerel won half of the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity, sharing the prize with the Curies. Family and Personal Life In 1877, Becquerel married Lucie Zoà © Marie Jamin, the daughter of another French physicist. However, she died the following year while giving birth to the couple’s son, Jean Becquerel. In 1890, he married Louise Dà ©sirà ©e Lorieux. Becquerel came from a lineage of distinguished scientists, and his family contributed greatly to the French scientific community over four generations. His father is credited with discovering the photovoltaic effect- a phenomenon, important for the operation of solar cells, wherein a material produces electrical current and voltage when exposed to light. His grandfather Antoine Cà ©sar Becquerel was a well-regarded scientist in the area of electrochemistry, a field important for developing batteries that studies the relationships between electricity and chemical reactions. Becquerel’s son, Jean Becquerel, also made strides in studying crystals, particularly their magnetic and optical properties. Honors and Awards For his scientific work, Becquerel earned several awards throughout his lifetime, including the Rumford Medal in 1900 and the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, which he shared with Marie and Pierre Curie. Several discoveries have also been named after Becquerel, including a crater called â€Å"Becquerel† both on the moon and Mars and a mineral called â€Å"Becquerelite† which contains a high percentage of uranium by weight. The SI unit for radioactivity, which measures the amount of ionizing radiation that is released when an atom experiences radioactive decay, is also named after Becquerel: its called the becquerel (or Bq). Death and Legacy Becquerel died from a heart attack on August 25, 1908, in Le Croisic, France. He was 55 years old. Today, Becquerel is remembered for discovering radioactivity, a process by which an unstable nucleus emits particles. Although radioactivity can be harmful to humans, it has many applications around the world, including the sterilization of food and medical instruments and the generation of electricity. Sources Allisy, A. â€Å"Henri Becquerel: The Discovery of Radioactivity.† Radiation Protection Dosimetry, vol. 68, no. 1/2, 1 Nov. 1996, pp. 3–10.Badash, Lawrence. â€Å"Henri Becquerel.† Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Inc., 21 Aug. 2018, www.britannica.com/biography/Henri-Becquerel.â€Å"Becquerel (Bq).† United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission - Protecting People and the Environment, www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/becquerel-bq.html.â€Å"Henri Becquerel – Biographical.† The Nobel Prize, www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/becquerel/biographical/.Sekiya, Masaru, and Michio Yamasaki. â€Å"Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852–1908): A Scientist Who Endeavored to Discover Natural Radioactivity.† Radiological Physics and Technology, vol. 8, no. 1, 16 Oct. 2014, pp. 1–3., doi:10.1007/s12194-014-0292-z.â€Å"Uses of Radioactivity/Radiation.† NDT Resource Center; www.nde-ed.org/EducationResou rces/HighSchool/Radiography/usesradioactivity.htm

How to Use the German Personal Pronoun Es

How to Use the German Personal Pronoun Es The German personal pronoun es is the English equivalent of it and has similar functions. It is mostly a substitute for a noun and can: Act as a subject, therefore be in the nominative case.As a subject es can be placed either before or after the verb.Es donnert in der Ferne - It is thundering in the distance.In der Ferne donnert es.Act as an object, therefore be in the accusative case.Its position can sometimes be changed, either after the verb or after the subject.Das Fernsehen ist kaputt. Ich werde es morgen reparieren - The t.v. is broken. I will fix it tomorrow.Morgen werde ich es reparieren.But not changeable with the following sentence:Das Kind weint. Ich beruhige es - The child is crying. Im consoling him/her. See Personal Pronoun Chart for a listing of es in all cases. Es is used in daily conversation such as when describing the weather or stating the time. Es ​however, is used more often in German. Also, not only can the position of es be changed, it can even be eliminated, depending on its function.See the following functions of es, take note of the similarities with English, learn the differences and then practice with this exercise. Es Functions Similar To English: When describing the weather.Es schneit heute - It is snowing.Es hagelt sehr viel - It is hailing a lot.When describing time.Wie spt ist es? What time is it?Es ist viertel vor acht - It is a quarter to eight.When describing things.Es ist weich - It is soft.Es schmeckt gut - It tastes good.Describing smells/dynamics of noises.Es stinkt hier - It stinks here.Es duftet schà ¶n - It smells nice.Es ist laut - It is loud.Es ist sehr still jetzt - It is very still/quiet now.However more specific noise descriptions usually cant be translated with it, such as:Es rauscht draußen - Theres a rustling outside.Um Mitternacht gibt es immer ein Klopfen an meiner Tà ¼r - At midnight, there is always a knocking at my door.To introduce a general remark/statement:Es ist schwierig heutzutage Arbeit zu finden - It is difficult nowadays to find work.Es ist wichtig organisiert zu sein - It is important to be organized.Es stà ¶rt mich - It disturbs me.To introduce a subsequent subordinate clause:Ich f inde es schrecklich, dass sie nicht essen will - I find it awful that she does not want to eat.However, when that same clause is placed at the beginning of the sentence, es will no longer be used: Dass sie nicht essen will, finde ich schrecklich.

Sartre's No Exit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Sartre's No Exit - Essay Example Although taken as a quasi strategy for the Existentialist movement, the transcription of this lecture was the only pamphlet that Sartre amenably regretted seeing in print. Yet, it continues to be the foremost introduction to his philosophy to the general public. One reason both for its fame and his discomfort is the precision with which it displays the cardinal doctrines of existentialist thought while enlightening Sartre's attempt to widen its social application in reaction to his Catholic and Communist criticism - it offers us a sight of Sartre's thought â€Å"on the wing.† In his play ‘No Exit’, he is determined to prove his famous argument; â€Å"hell is other people† and perception that there is no God is widely unleashed. He wants the reader to catch his philosophical perspective of belief and reason. No Exit, the Jean- Paul Sartre’s play, coined the famous slogan â€Å"Hell is other people!† Anybody may wonder on hearing such a harsh de claration, if this is a portrayal of manhood or just a portrayal of certain categories of individuals who make life more problematic than it ought to be. Sartre's unique vision on hell takes us to an isolated hotel located in an extremely hot place with numerous rooms to be occupied that are better referred to as the damned (Contat 33). This particular play involves majorly three people who died and went to their eternal destination, the Hell. They are three rather selfish and depraved individuals, seeing them in one light. Contrariwise, you can say they are three delicate souls desperately in need of something. However, they have no ability to offer of themselves. Like vampires imbibing the best of all mankind, wanting to be satisfied, yet unwilling to care for anybody, but only themselves. Our first character to meet is a journalist who owns what he calls pacifist newspaper by the name Joseph Garcin. He was shot during the Second World War, although he had deserted his position an d fled to Mexico. He is constantly trying to escape from Gomez judgment and others who think he is a coward because he fled in war time. His paramount accuser is himself, the only person he could never escape. Joseph was also a drunk and an adulterer. He deliberately cheated on his wife habitually; even making poor women to serve coffee to his mistresses and him. He was so heartless that he did not care how much he caused his poor wife pain. She died of a broken heart soon after him. Next we have Serrano Inez who is a self declared sinner and foul to the ground. She describes the nadirs of her immorality in the following declaration: â€Å"When I say I am cruel, I imply I can not get on devoid of making people suffer. Just like a live coal – a live coal in others’ people hearts. When In am alone I sparkle out† (Hudson 78). Despite her unkind nature, Inez has a virtue; she calls them by way of seeing them. Inez is similar to a vampire because she lives for her bo dily desire. She was a lesbian and guilty of ending a marriage and spinning a wife against her spouse. She made that woman her love, and together, they collaborated and killed the husband of her lover. She can look at her wickedness, and accept it as a portion of who she is. Inez consents being in hell and she does not anticipate anything enhanced. In hell, she lusts for

Critical analysis of conventionon cluster munitions Essay

Critical analysis of conventionon cluster munitions - Essay Example Almost 90 countries joined the legal process and 37 others have already signed and ratified the agreement. Meanwhile, the greatest political powers, including the United States, Russia, China and Israel rejected the Convention and are growing more reluctant to reduce their participation in the global military movement. The big military powers like Russia, China, the United States and Israel will continue resisting their participation in the international Convention on Cluster Munitions, as long as cluster munitions are the sources of numerous military and economic benefits, which these countries use in their fight against the minor and major military enemies. Understanding the reasons for which the biggest political powers reject the Convention on Cluster Munitions is impossible without having better understanding of what cluster munitions are and how they work. Objectively, â€Å"cluster munitions are weapons that, when launched or dropped by aircraft, disperse large numbers of sub munitions over wide areas that can be the size of two to four football fields† (UNDP). That cluster bombs do not always explode upon impact and continue threatening the civilian population remains one of the major issues of public concern. This is also the basic reason for developing and signing the global Convention on Cluster Munitions. Apart from serving the basic instrument of casualties in military operations, cluster munitions contribute to food insecurity through the contamination of arable land and by killing livestock (UNDP). Cluster bombs block access to water and sanitation and turn into a serious barrier to economic development (UNDP). Sinc e the World War II, cluster munitions have targeted almost 30 countries, and it is high time new legislation were developed and implemented, to reduce the risks of casualties among the civilian population (UNDP). The technical and military features of cluster munitions make it difficult for the

Altruism in humans Essay Example for Free

Altruism in humans Essay Calvin et al (1987) proposed a more selfish view of helping, stressing that people help others to avoid feeling sad (a negative state) and because it makes them feel good about themselves. This is called the Negative State Relief (NSR) model. It doesnt matter whether the negative affect (mood) is caused by witnessing the distress of the victim or whether the helper was already in bad mood. Either way, you help to improve your own mood. Adults may internalise the reward of doing good. . Therefore, adults in a bad mood may help in order to alleviate their negative state. However if people can relieve their negative mood through some other source (such as hearing a good joke or getting some money) then they do not need to help. Effect of Mood Enhancement (EME) study A variation on Batsons research was carried. Those participants in the high empathy group (i. e. those who shared in the same opinions as Elaine or Charlie) were offered some cash during the experiment. Accordingly, they helped less-their negative state at seeing Elaine or Charlie suffer was diminished by the cash. The reduction of their negative state in this was meant that they didnt have to help reduce their negative feelings (conclusion). Its been found in numerous studies that being in a good mood results in more pro-social behaviour. Research have found people to be more helpful after listening to comedy, smelling pleasant odours, after finding money or by going outside on sunny days (Boron and Byrne,199. ). However if people feel their good mood will be affected by helping then they are more likely to not help and walk. Artificial studies: all lab studies are extremely artificial and lack ecological validity. Behaviour in the real world is subject to many other factors, such as social and cultural influences on behaviour none of which are explored in these lab settings. Therefore it is difficult to generalise lab findings to a wider context. People have criticised Cialdini et al for proposing to negative a view of human behaviour. However the selfish view of human behaviour might be right. ) Helping does help negative state: its not in dispute those helping others/ another person in need does lead to an improved mood for the helper. So it has face validity.

Captain Picard as A Noble Warrior :: Star Trek Essays Papers

Captain Picard as A Noble Warrior Captain Picard is a good leader because of his ability to think clearly and objectively in all situations. He does not have pride blocking his ability to think rationally and see all sides of an issue. Also, he is not easily swayed by his emotions and does not allow them to cloud his judgment. Picard's ability to act quickly leads to effective delegating and exemplary leadership. A good leader is one who brings out the best in his people while being a servant to them. Pride often seems to come between a leader and his decisions. Picard never makes mention of what would be best for him, but instead is always thinking about his crew and what is in their best interest. In "The Defector" he repeatedly make comments to his desire for his crew to have a noble and honorable cause for war. He does not want their deaths to be in vain. As Henry V acted compassionately towards his men, Picard too wants to display the same sensitivity Henry did when his men were about to enter battle. Picard wants to know how his crew is feeling and what their needs might be. Picard and Henry are good leaders because they continue to look past their own wants and onto their troops needs. In the Henry V scene, Data is playing the role of King Henry. While Henry is undercover, he is quoted as saying, "The King is but a mere man". He is mortal just like his men. Picard is able to clearly se e the King's internal struggle with allowing himself to get close to his men while not weakening his position as their leader. Captain Picard knows his limits and is not ashamed or to proud to admit them, he just does not want to appear incapable to his men. He must be remain an assertive leader, while allowing himself to be human and approachable. Picard is constantly having his crew involved and helping him make a good clear judgment about Jarok. This shows he is not over confident in his leadership position. "Picard is supposed to be calm and calculating because well, he's the captain. If he bought everyone's emotional appeal he wouldn't be a very good leader" (Reyer Jan 30, 1996). Picard knows how to balance his gut feeling with the facts. As Visor pointed out, we do not always have all the facts, and this is where your "gut feeling" must come in, to fill in the missing details.

Coping with Life Challenges Essay

Toni Cade Bambara, born March 25, 1939 in New York City; her mother was Helen Brent Henderson Cade. Bambara adopted that last name when she discovered it on a sketchbook her great-grandmother had. Bambara spent the first ten years of her life in Harlem, New York. In 1973, she published and essay in Redbook explaining what she liked about her mother. Bambara is an activist, novelist, writer, essayist, and a filmmaker. Bambara was influenced by her work as a social worker in the 1960’s. Bambara knew how the black community had been neglected and abused in the American society. Bambara became devoted to her community; she wrote primarily for her black community and in black dialect. Toni Cade Bambara wrote several short stories, one specifically was â€Å"The Lesson,† in this short story; she speaks on how to overcome struggles and stereotyping in the black community. In â€Å"The Lesson,† Toni Cade Bambara, uses characterization, style of language and setting; she also shows how she felt about how unfair the American society was through the eyes of a black woman. First, Bambara uses characterization. In â€Å"The Lesson† Bambara developed a strong and positive character who could teach us about valuable lessons in life. This character was a strong black woman named Miss Moore, who taught all the children in her community how to overcome the struggles in their community. Miss Moore first took the children to a store on Fifth Avenue, this store was the most expensive toy store the name of the store was F. A. O. Schwartz. The first life lesson was an expensive handcrafted sailboat, â€Å"Hand-crafted sailboat of fiberglass at one thousand one hundred and ninety-five dollars. † (Bambara) This lesson was to show the children the value of money, and how to value what they have and not what they want. In the second trial Bambara uses style of language, Miss Moore questioned the children on how they felt about the expensive sailboat. One of the characters in the story, Sylvia became upset with Miss Moore because out of all the children, she was the only one to get the point. Sylvia said, â€Å"I’m mad, but I won’t give her that satisfaction. So I slouch around bein very bored and say, Let’s go. †(Bambara) Sylvia realized that Miss Moore wanted them to see what type of environment they lived in and wanted them to think of ways to overcome those struggles in the future. Last, Bambara uses setting, Miss Moore, wanted the children to realize how unfair life was in the American society. Miss Moore wanted the children to see, that they had to overcome the stereotyping and become the opposite of what life was expected out of them. Miss Moore said, â€Å"Imagine for a minute what kind of society it is in which some people can spend on a toy what it would cost to feed a family of six or seven. What do you think? † (Bambara) Bambara’s main character knew what life expected out of them and she wanted the children to overcome the struggles, simply by experiencing them. In conclusion, the author felt that living within your society, you have to overcome the stereotyping and become the opposite of what life is expected of you. Toni Cade Bambara wanted her characters in â€Å"The Lesson,† to overcome society’s obstacles, cruelty, and devaluation and to discover their strengths, and to have pride within them. Toni Cade Bambara is universal and lives on in today’s society.

Impact of Globalisation on Education Essay

The effects of globalisation on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within learning systems across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialisation towards an information-based society. In the research paper an effort is made to highlight the positive and negative implications of Globalisation on education and also remedies to the challenges faced by it. On moving towards its positive aspects it is evident that due to globalization there is explosion of knowledge. Access to knowledge has been made easier through Information Technology, satellites, supersonic travel etc, No country can afford to erect walls around it. A country like India for example, has no reason to discard globalisation because it has a large potential for natural resources, large national market, strong industrial base, a powerful R & D infrastructure and above all a highly knowledgeable and skilled manpower that can stand on its own in global competition and rise to any challenge. Employment based education was the most precious gift of gobalisation. Education can be globalised in three ways: (i) By setting up educational campuses abroad, (ii) By offering educational programmes in foreign countries through tie-ups or collaborations with their educational institution, and (iii) By admitting foreign and NRI students in our educational institutions. On moving towards its darker side, there are many challenges faced by our education system. Due to commercialization of education it creates a divide between ‘haves’ and ‘havenots’. As education came in the reach of privates institutions it is going out of reach of poor. Moreover, the quality of education imparted in private and govt. nstitution have the difference of sky and earth. Quality of education in govt. institution is degrading and private institutions are beyond the reach. What a pity! Many foreign institutions and other private institutions are merely degree delivering machines. The objective of education from knowledge sharing is shifting merely to p rofit maximizing. This is a degradation in the values of Indian education system which has the glory of ‘Vishw Guru’ and where the concept of gurukul and teacher-student relationship exists but today that respect of student towards teacher and even the dedication and care of teacher towards student is missing. Along with all these, the increase craze of medical, engineering and business administration and downfall in plain courses of science, commerce and arts has only resulted in many doctors ,engineers and MBA students not recognized and no longer produces efficient and honest administrators which is a die-heart need in country like India which is in the grip of cancerous corruption. Looking to all its positivity and negativities the attempt in the research paper is to explore the remedies to the challenges faced by education . To make globalization meaningful and productive, we need to design a system of education that is universal, affordable, based on the principles of justice and related to the life of the community. This new universal system of education must incorporate social and moral values in its curriculum and produce world citizens who are free from prejudices and who are the builders of an ever advancing civilisation.

Communication theories

Communication theories Introduction Communication is the process through which information is conveyed, and involves the sending and receiving of the message. It is a platform that develops, maintains and improves relationships among individuals and groups. However, in some cases, it can be the destroyer of relationships. There are several definitions of communication depending on ones point of view.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Communication theories specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It has been described as the transition of information to ignite response, sharing of information and ideas among many other definitions. The word communication was adopted from a Latin word communis. The world has gone through several revolutions including communication revolution. Communication has come a long way due to the help of the consistent development of better communication equipment and technological development (Aggarwal Gupta, 2001). Today, the communication world is sophisticated due to the many technological advances that have been witnessed. There have been numerous studies conducted in the field of digital communication. These studies have been the driving force of this technological advancement. The world is driving towards the digital communication though this has not been achieved mostly in the developing countries (Thomas Chandra, 2006). Mass communication started in the fifteenth century by the invention of Johannes Gutenberg’s from printed information to moving information type. Printed information developed in the nineteenth century. Moving press information was aided by the improved transport system, the development of the telegram, and the invention of the telephone (Aggarwal Gupta, 2001). Literature review The media industry in India has proliferated in the past recent years. The first Indian newspaper was printed in 1780, which is about two hundred years ago. Initially, the Indian media were divided into electronic and print media. The electronic media include television and radios. On the other hand, the print media include newspaper, magazines, and journals. The present technological advancement obliterated this divide. Mass media are instruments that have shaped the social lives of the society of the word and not just in India. There are three types of communication theories: the common sense theory, the working theory and the scholar’s theory. The common sense theory is created by the individual’s personal experiences and is useful to other people about how to communicate. The working theory is about the best way to do things. On the other hand, the scholars theory has undergone a systematic research, and the result provides an accurate and abstract understanding for the communication (Aggarwal Gupta, 2001).Advertising Looking for research paper on communication strategies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Cognitive dissonance theory This theory concerns the incompatibility between people’s beliefs and actions. People deal with dissonance by avoiding hearing contradictory news of their own, seek reassurance after tough decisions are made, and try to change personal beliefs to match public behavior. A dissonance reaction can be explained by self affirmation and personal responsibility. This theory implies that influence is an intra-personal event that occurs when there is tension between attitude and an individual behavior. This tension is ultimately solved by either influencing behavior or attitude. There are three relationship possibilities between behavior and beliefs. It can be irrelevant, consonance or dissonance. The irrelevance explains when there is no relationship between behavior and belief. Consonance can be an explanation when the two stimuli achieve congruence or balance. A dissonance is used to explain a relationship between two stimuli th at contradict each other. The level of dissonance felt by an individual is affected by the ones rationalism, dissonance ratio that is the weight of discomfort one feels (Miller, 2005). An individual’s experience with different topics also affects the weight of dissonance. These individuals are likely to show selective exposure, selective attention, selective retains and selective interpretation. The selective exposure helps individuals to avoid information that related to a previous behavior or belief. Selective attention helps one to pay attention to only that information that support ones belief while disregarding the opposing views. Selective perpetration is a mind struggle where one interprets the information to suit ones belief. Selective retains is when one only retain the information that upholds information supporting ones belief while forgetting others. A cognitive dissonance theory is also considered as a post decision theory. According to this theory, a decision is made with disregard to any information opposite to ones belief or behavior. The media have the challenge with this group of individuals. In this case, it does not matter what information one conveys unless it supports their beliefs. Even the extraction of information from the group is also dangerous. This way, the group interprets information to match their belief same way they provide information that matches their beliefs. Thus, such information may not be accurate. The media should try bridging this gap so that the information receivers are influenced to create cognitive harmony (Dainton Zelley 2005). Cultivation theory/analysis This theory implies that the television and media play an important role in how people perceive the world. In this modern world, people get information through the media rather than from direct experiences. Therefore, these sources have shaped peoples sense of reality especially when it comes to violence. This theory almost refers to one form of media, which is the television. Thus, there are many assumptions in the cultivation theory.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Communication theories specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Television is widely used by the Indian society. The television has influenced its audience perception about the social reality. The television has limited side effects, there are other factors that affect one’s view on social reality apart from the television. The violent television is known not to affect everyone. According to the theory, only individuals with social attitudes are affected as they become a pessimist with increased television watching. Violence is not just a physical force as it happens with or without the physical force to others or on one’s self. A mean world syndrome is the term used to describe the condition experienced by the pessimists. This happens when the nature of violence on the ground does no t match the way it is perceived on the television. It affects heavy television watchers more than light watchers. Sometimes the media show more violent incidences repeatedly and for a longer time as compared to positive peaceful occurrences. The media have the responsibility to air both positive and negative social occurrence to enhance a good relationship with viewers. An example is how the demonstration is sometimes carried out after a certain conflict or violence is shown on television. The intensity of such demonstration depends on how the violence is shown on television (Dainton Zelley, 2005). Group-think theory This occurs when a given group fails to solve the group differences effectively through consideration of the best possible alternatives. Group theorists explain that members of a certain group think similarly most of the time. Therefore, at times, they fail to share dissimilar opinions with others. In such a case, the group may make premature decisions with daring cons equences. The group-think is not a good idea sometimes especially when the group’s values are overridden by the unanimity of opinions. The group-think idea was designed to examine and predict how a certain group makes poor decisions. There are three situations that may cause group think to occur (Dainton Zelley 2005). Cohesion: This refers to the extent of group solidarity. A group that is bound is likely to do a group-think. This is due to the likeliness that the group members have similar interests and thus share opinions. Structural flaws: This is the reason that brings the group together. Some groups are formed after being isolated and abandoned by a larger group. Group think can occur in situations where the decision is intended not to agree with the leaders opinion whether the leaders is right or not. It is common under biased leadership. If a group fails to follow procedural measure in decision making or lack the decision making process resulting into group-think. Si tuational characteristics: This happens when an abnormal situation forces a team to make certain decisions such as stress. Some assumptions made during the formation of the group can result into poor decision making as a result of group-think. An example is an assumption that the group will never fail or group has good characters so eve the decisions they make are good. Close minds and the pressure towards uniformity can also influence group-think. The group-think is not easy to deal with unless the group is split such that they are treated as individuals. However, it is not true that group-think is always not a good idea in decision making. Communication accommodation theory This perspective underlies what happens when two speakers change their communication styles. This theory implies that two people or groups can sometimes change how to communicate to accommodate another group. This happens through divergence or convergence. A group that is bound by racial or ethnic background m ay use divergence communication style to show group identity. Divergence happens when the same group seeks a social acceptance to be approved by powerful individuals or groups (Baran, Baran Davis, 2012). This theory explains the changes in one’s language or speech. It provides an informative solution to cultural differences in regards to language and speech. Accommodation in a group occurs when one has a sense of belonging to a group. On the other hand, the accommodation out of the group occurs when one does not experience a sense of belonging to the group. A convergence individual has to change his/her speech to match that of the conversational colleague. A divergent speech is used when conversing with an unattractive personality to show differentiation. An example is when the teacher changes language and speech tone when disciplining pupils (Dainton Zelley, 2005).Advertising Looking for research paper on communication strategies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Positive effects Negative effects Convergence -Increased attraction -Social approval -Increased persuasion -Incorrect stereotypes of out-group -Loss of personal identity Divergence -Protects cultural identity -Asserts power differences -Perceived lack of effort -Increased psychological distance The media are sometimes forced to be the convergent persona. This happens when seeking information from a tribal group that may not be welcoming (Dainton Zelley, 2005). Social learning and social penetration theory A social exchange theory indicates that for self satisfaction interest between people depends on the interpersonal relationship. Self interest is not a negative thing all the time since it can sometimes enhance a relationship. It is just like batter trade as people get satisfaction as long as they receive as much as they spend. Social penetration is slow and predictable as it primarily starts with self disclosure and progresses into an intimate relationship. Self disclo sure can bring people together or put one in a more vulnerable position. This theory can explain why some relationship nourishes while others end usually based on satisfaction. There are three assumptions in this theory. First, relationships are based on the cost and benefits balance. Secondly, people want to receive maximum benefits while limiting expenses as much as possible. Lastly, humans are selfish. The core component of this theory is that relationships come with benefits and costs and the outcome is the difference between the reward and the costs. The next component of the social exchange theory is the comparison level, which is ones reward expectations in a relationship. Another component is the comparative level of all possible alternatives. Satisfaction is not enough for a relationship to continue or end as the predictable value of other alternative relationship determine whether a relationship survives or not. The professional media needs to have a good relationship betw een the viewers and information providers. Having a good relationship with both parties will determine whether a certain journalist progress in career or not. For example, a journalist of a certain media house should maintain a good relationship with the politician so as to access information from the politician another time. If that politician’s view is shown in a negative way that he/she does not like, then the relationship ends and the journalist may not find another time to get information from the same politician (Dainton Zelley 2005). Uncertainty reduction theory The theory is based on how people new to each other try to reduce their uncertainty levels upon meeting each other. This happens when people perceive how the opponent will behave or what the other person think about them. People use communication to reduce the uncertainty levels. Human social life has many ambiguities and thus this theory tends to explain why, how and when people use communication to reduce th eir doubts that may arise when talking to new individuals or groups. The uncertainty is reduced when interacting with individuals one is likely to see again. The uncertainty value is the driving force behind the interaction as one would want to know the rewards of such interaction. Uncertainty can either be behavioral or cognitive. There are three uncertainty reduction strategies. They include passive, active and interactive strategies. The passive strategy is when one obtains the surrounding information to develop a clue about a given group of people or about an individual. The active strategy involves the use of another person to understand a situation or a person. The interactive strategy is when one goes straight to another person and asks questions about things that one may not understand. This is achieved by asking as many questions as possible and get enough information. Most media groups through their journalists use all the three strategies during and before investigations. Journalists are required to know enough about situations before reporting. This is meant to ensure that the information given is as accurate as possible. Therefore, journalists should employ the use of all the three strategies (Dainton Zelley, 2005). Conclusion There are several communication theories that are no discussed above. Communication students can use these theories to understand the theoretical communication field work. Some of these theories are applied to journalism, and should be understood by journalists as they determine whether one will succeed in efforts to look for reports, news or while doing investigations. The application of the theories varies depending on the cultural diversity. Therefore, the cultural background knowledge is important to match a given theory. References Aggarwal, V.B. Gupta, V.S. (2001). Handbook of journalism and mass communication. New Delhi: Concept. Baran, S.J. Baran, S.J. Davis, D.K. (2012). Mass communication theory: Foundations, fe rment, and future. Boston, MA: Wadsworth. Dainton, M. Zelley, E.D. (2005). Applying communication theory for professional life: A practical introduction. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE. Miller, K. (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Thomas, T.G., Chandra, S.S. (2006). Communication theory. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Pub.

Important Cities in African-American History

Important Cities in African-American History African Americans have contributed tremendously to the culture of the United States. First brought to America hundreds of years ago to work as slaves, blacks won their freedom after the 19th century Civil War. However, many blacks remained very poor and moved throughout the country seeking better economic opportunities. Unfortunately, even after the Civil War, many white people still discriminated against blacks. Blacks and whites were segregated, and the education and living conditions of black people suffered. However, after several historic, sometimes tragic events, black people decided to no longer tolerate these injustices. Here are some of the most important cities in African-American history. Montgomery, Alabama In 1955, Rosa Parks, a seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama, refused to obey her bus driver’s order to surrender her seat to a white man. Parks was arrested for disorderly conduct. Martin Luther King Jr. led a boycott of the city bus system, which desegregated in 1956 when segregated buses were deemed unconstitutional. Rosa Parks became one of the most influential and famous female civil rights activists, and the Rosa Parks Library and Museum in Montgomery now displays her story. Little Rock, Arkansas In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were unconstitutional and that schools should soon integrate. However, in 1957, the governor of Arkansas ordered troops to forcibly prevent nine African American students from entering Little Rock Central High School. President Dwight Eisenhower learned of the harassment the students experienced and sent National Guard troops to aid the students. Several of the â€Å"Little Rock Nine† eventually graduated from high school.   Birmingham, Alabama Several important civil rights events occurred in 1963 in Birmingham, Alabama. In April, Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested and wrote his â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail.† King argued that citizens have the moral duty to disobey unjust laws such as segregation and inequality. In May, law enforcement officers released police dogs and sprayed fire hoses on a crowd of peaceful protesters in Kelly Ingram Park. Images of the violence were displayed on television and shocked viewers. In September, the Ku Klux Klan bombed the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church and killed four innocent black girls. This particularly heinous crime incited riots across the country. Today, the Birmingham Civil Rights Institute explains these events and other civil and human rights issues. Selma, Alabama Selma, Alabama is located about sixty miles west of Montgomery. On March 7, 1965, six hundred African American residents decided to march to Montgomery to peacefully protest voting registration rights. When they tried to cross the Edmund Pettus Bridge, law enforcement officers stopped them and abused them with clubs and tear gas. The incident on â€Å"Bloody Sunday† enraged President Lyndon Johnson, who ordered National Guard troops to protect the marchers as they successfully marched to Montgomery a few weeks later. President Johnson then signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Today, the National Voting Rights Museum is located in Selma, and the path of the marchers from Selma to Montgomery is a National Historic Trail. Greensboro, North Carolina On February 1, 1960, four African-American college students sat down at the â€Å"whites-only† restaurant counter of Woolworth’s Department Store in Greensboro, North Carolina. They were refused service, but for six months, despite harassment, the boys regularly returned to the restaurant and sat at the counter. This peaceful form of protest became known as a â€Å"sit-in.† Other people boycotted the restaurant and sales dropped. The restaurant was desegregated that summer and the students were finally served. The International Civil Rights Center and Museum is now located in Greensboro.   Memphis, Tennessee Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. visited Memphis in 1968 to try to improve the working conditions of sanitation workers. On April 4, 1968, King stood on a balcony at the Lorraine Motel and was hit by a bullet fired by James Earl Ray. He died that night at the age of thirty-nine and is buried in Atlanta. The motel is now the home of the National Civil Rights Museum. Washington, D.C. Several crucial civil rights demonstrations have occurred in the capital of the United States. The best-known demonstration was probably the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in August 1963, when 300,000 people heard Martin Luther King give his I Have a Dream speech. Other Important Cities in Black History African-American culture and history are also displayed in countless more cities across the country. Harlem is a significant black community in New York City, the largest city in America. In the Midwest, blacks were influential in the history and culture of Detroit and Chicago. Black musicians such as Louis Armstrong helped make New Orleans famous for jazz music. Struggle for Racial Equality The civil rights movement of the 20th century awakened all Americans to the inhumane belief systems of racism and segregation. African-Americans continued to work hard, and many have become enormously successful. Colin Powell served as the United States Secretary of State from 2001 to 2005, and Barack Obama became the 44th US President in 2009. America’s most important African-American cities will forever honor the courageous civil rights leaders who fought for respect and better lives for their families and neighbors.

Grammar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Grammar - Essay Example Thus, the language particular-level provides us with the information about the distinctive characteristics of different categories used in English. This gives an opportunity to state that a word refers to a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc. For example, a verb has six grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. It is the only part of speech that may change according to tense. As for the general level, it gives an opportunity to analyze two or more languages and find their common features. This helps to simplify the process of learning by the usage of the same terms. There are nouns, adjectives, verbs in all the languages. They just sound in different ways. For example, when there are pronouns in English, the same part of speech is called Pronomen in German. B) Should pronouns be treated as a subclass of nouns, or as a separate word class? Why? Pronouns should be treated as a separate word class. The main reason is that both these parts of speech have diff erent functions. A noun is applied in order to name substances and living beings. The same cannot be stated about pronouns. They do not name things, they only pointy out them. Moreover, English grammar would become more difficult if nouns and pronouns were the same part of speech. Thus, there are no special plural cases when we learn pronouns and the latter cannot be countable or uncountable. So, there is no need to change something in the traditional way to learn two separate parts of speech – nouns and pronouns. C) What are kernel clauses and what are the advantages of recognising the kernel vs non-kernel distinction? A kernel clause is a simple sentence that does not have any optional expression. It is indicative. This clause is unmarked in voice, mood, and polarity. It cannot be passive. For example: He threw a ball. Non-kernel clause is either negative or missing some element. Moreover, if there is an adjective, infinitive or gerund, it is also a non-kernel clause. For e xample: They saw him crossing the street. There is one major advantage of recognizing kernel and non-kernel clauses – this gives a significant simplification of grammar. D) Why is it important to systematically distinguish between grammatical class and grammatical function? Grammatical class is a grouping of words that are distinguished by common characteristics. For example, such words as dog, coat, man, and umbrella are nouns, because they name objects, have gender and number. They may have different grammatical function performed in a sentence. The latter helps to see the role of one and the same word in different contexts. That is why we should distinguish grammatical class and grammatical function. E) How does Huddleston's treatment of prepositions differ from that found in traditional grammars? What are the advantages (and disadvantages?) of Huddleston’s treatment? It is necessary to stress that Huddleston has another point of view upon prepositions. From his per spective, there are two types of propositions – they can refer either to coordinator or subordinator classes. That is why propositions are not secondary in English sentence; their function is very important. This part of speech often stands together with a verb – the principal member of a sentence. Moreover, proposition may function as one element in an utterance.